Online first
Current issue
Archive
Special Issues
About the Journal
Publication Ethics
Anti-Plagiarism system
Instructions for Authors
Instructions for Reviewers
Editorial Board
Editorial Office
Contact
Reviewers
All Reviewers
2025
2024
2023
2022
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
General Data Protection Regulation (RODO)
REVIEW PAPER
Microbial hazards in rainwater harvesting systems: bacterial sources, indicators, and health implications – a review
1
Department of Water Supply and Wastewater Disposal, Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Energy, University of Technology, Lublin, Poland
2
Toxicology and Food Safety, Institute of Rural Health, Lublin, Poland
Corresponding author
Konrad Jamka
Department of Water Supply and Wastewater Disposal, Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Energy, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 40B, 20-618, Lublin, Poland
Department of Water Supply and Wastewater Disposal, Faculty of Environmental Engineering and Energy, Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 40B, 20-618, Lublin, Poland
KEYWORDS
public healthmicrobiological contaminationRWHS – rainwater harvesting systemFIB – faecal indicator bacteriaQMRA – quantitative microbiological risk assessmentMST – microbial source tracking
TOPICS
- Biological agents posing occupational risk in agriculture, forestry, food industry and wood industry and diseases caused by these agents (zoonoses, allergic and immunotoxic diseases)
- Health effects of chemical pollutants in agricultural areas , including occupational and non-occupational effects of agricultural chemicals (pesticides, fertilizers) and effects of industrial disposal (heavy metals, sulphur, etc.) contaminating the atmosphere, soil and water
ABSTRACT
Introduction and objective:
Rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) are an important element of sustainable water management in urbanized areas, by supporting retention and adaptation to climate change. The widespread use of RWHS, however, is limited due to concerns about the microbiological purity of the water. The aim of the review is to illustrate the current state of knowledge regarding microbiological hazards and methods of their assessment in the rainwater of RWHS.
Review methods:
A comprehensive literature search was conducted using Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed databases. Publications from 2000–2026 were analyzed, with special consideration of the studies published after 2015. Key words included: rainwater harvesting, RWHS, microbiological contamination, faecal indicator bacteria, FIB, microbial source tracking, MST, quantitative microbial risk assessment, QMRA.
Brief description of the state of knowledge:
RWHS systems are an effective tool for rainwater management and protection of its resources in integrated water resource management systems. However, the fundamental limitation to their broader implementation is mainly microbiological hazards, effectively limiting the use of rainwater for domestic and consumption purposes.
Summary:
The review organizes the knowledge on the safety of water from RWHS, considers microbiological hazards, FIB indicator bacteria, markers for identification of sources of microbiological contamination (MST), and QMRA microbiological risk assessment methods. It also discusses the limitations associated with FIB, the significance of MST, and the role of QMRA. Current data indicate that untreated water from RWHS is often suitable for use in non-consumption activities; however, it usually exceeds the standards set for drinking water. The water from RWHS intended for drinking most often requires treatment and continuous monitoring.
Rainwater harvesting systems (RWHS) are an important element of sustainable water management in urbanized areas, by supporting retention and adaptation to climate change. The widespread use of RWHS, however, is limited due to concerns about the microbiological purity of the water. The aim of the review is to illustrate the current state of knowledge regarding microbiological hazards and methods of their assessment in the rainwater of RWHS.
Review methods:
A comprehensive literature search was conducted using Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed databases. Publications from 2000–2026 were analyzed, with special consideration of the studies published after 2015. Key words included: rainwater harvesting, RWHS, microbiological contamination, faecal indicator bacteria, FIB, microbial source tracking, MST, quantitative microbial risk assessment, QMRA.
Brief description of the state of knowledge:
RWHS systems are an effective tool for rainwater management and protection of its resources in integrated water resource management systems. However, the fundamental limitation to their broader implementation is mainly microbiological hazards, effectively limiting the use of rainwater for domestic and consumption purposes.
Summary:
The review organizes the knowledge on the safety of water from RWHS, considers microbiological hazards, FIB indicator bacteria, markers for identification of sources of microbiological contamination (MST), and QMRA microbiological risk assessment methods. It also discusses the limitations associated with FIB, the significance of MST, and the role of QMRA. Current data indicate that untreated water from RWHS is often suitable for use in non-consumption activities; however, it usually exceeds the standards set for drinking water. The water from RWHS intended for drinking most often requires treatment and continuous monitoring.
REFERENCES (90)
1.
Brown CM, Lund JR, Cai X, et al. The future of water resources systems analysis: Toward a scientific framework for sustainable water management. Water Resour Res. 2015;51:6110–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015WR....
2.
Xu J, Dai J, Wu X, et al. Urban rainwater utilization: A review of management modes and harvesting systems. Front Environ Sci. 2023;11:1025665. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.....
3.
Raszewski G, Jamka K, Bojar H, et al. Endocrine disrupting micropollutants in water and their effects on human fertility and fecundity. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2022;29:477–82. https://doi.org/10.26444/aaem/....
4.
Simonovic S. Systems Approach to Management of Water Resources—Toward Performance Based Water Resources Engineering. Water. 2020;12:1208. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12041....
5.
Białek A, Łagód G. The impact of physical-geographical conditions on the sizing of rain gardens: A spatial case of Poland. J Ecol Eng. 2025;26:460–76. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998....
6.
Rodak CM, Jayakaran AD, Moore TL, et al. Urban stormwater characterization, control, and treatment. Water Environ Res. 2020;92:1552–86. https://doi.org/10.1002/wer.14....
7.
Szeląg B, Kiczko A, Musz-Pomorska A, et al. Advanced Graphical–Analytical Method of Pipe Tank Design Integrated with Sensitivity Analysis for Sustainable Stormwater Management in Urbanized Catchments. Water. 2021;13:1035. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13081....
8.
Szeląg B, Łagód G, Musz-Pomorska A, et al. Development of Rainfall-Runoff Models for Sustainable Stormwater Management in Urbanized Catchments. Water. 2022;14:1997. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14131....
9.
Widomski MK, Musz-Pomorska A. Hydrologic Efficiency of Rain Gardens as Countermeasures to Overuse of Concrete in Historical Public Spaces. Sustainability 2025;17:2527. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1706....
10.
Qi Y, Chan FKS, Thorne C, et al. Addressing Challenges of Urban Water Management in Chinese Sponge Cities via Nature-Based Solutions. Water. 2020;12:2788. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12102....
11.
Szeląg B, Drewnowski J, Łagód G, et al. Soft Sensor Application in Identification of the Activated Sludge Bulking Considering the Technological and Economical Aspects of Smart Systems Functioning. Sensors 2020;20:1941. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20071....
12.
Eyni A, Skardi MJE, Kerachian R. A regret-based behavioral model for shared water resources management: Application of the correlated equilibrium concept. Sci Total Environ. 2021;759:143892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scit....
13.
Iwanek M, Suchorab P. Profitability Analysis of Selected Low Impact Development Methods for Decentralised Rainwater Management: A Case Study from Lublin Region, Poland. Water. 2023;15:2601. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15142....
14.
Sang Y-F, Yang M. Urban waterlogs control in China: more effective strategies and actions are needed. Nat Hazards. 2017;85:1291–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069....
15.
Huang Z, Nya EL, Rahman MA, et al. Integrated Water Resource Management: Rethinking the Contribution of Rainwater Harvesting. Sustainability. 2021;13:8338. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1315....
16.
GhaffarianHoseini A, Tookey J, GhaffarianHoseini A, et al. State of the art of rainwater harvesting systems towards promoting green built environments: a review. Desalination Water Treat. 2016;57:95–104. https://doi.org/10.1080/194439....
17.
Page D, Gonzalez D, Sidhu J, et al. Assessment of treatment options of recycling urban stormwater recycling via aquifers to produce drinking water quality. Urban Water J. 2016;13:657–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/157306....
18.
Ali S, Sang Y-F, Yang M, et al. Influences of rainfall characteristics on water saving and stormwater control performances of rainwater harvesting systems. J Environ Manage. 2025;375:124318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenv....
19.
Rapacewicz R, Kudlek E, Brukało K. Rainwater and stormwater quality in terms of its potential use in swimming pool installations. Desalination Water Treat. 2025;321:100918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.....
20.
Campos Cardoso RN, Cavalcante Blanco CJ, Duarte JM. Technical and financial feasibility of rainwater harvesting systems in public buildings in Amazon, Brazil. J Clean Prod. 2020;260:121054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcle....
21.
Severis RM, Silva FAD, Wahrlich J, et al. Economic analysis and risk-based assessment of the financial losses of domestic rainwater harvesting systems. Resour Conserv Recycl. 2019;146:206–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resc....
22.
Leong JYC, Balan P, Chong MN, et al. Life-cycle assessment and lifecycle cost analysis of decentralised rainwater harvesting, greywater recycling and hybrid rainwater-greywater systems. J Clean Prod. 2019;229:1211–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcle....
23.
Custódio DA, Ghisi E. Impact of residential rainwater harvesting on stormwater runoff. J Environ Manage. 2023;326:116814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenv....
24.
Saad A, Benyamina AEH, Gamatie A. Water Management in Agriculture: A Survey on Current Challenges and Technological Solutions. IEEE Access. 2020;8:38082–97. https://doi.org/10.1109/AC-CES....
25.
Musz-Pomorska A, Widomski MK, Gołębiowska J. Financial Sustainability of Selected Rain Water Harvesting Systems for Single Family House under Conditions of Eastern Poland. Sustainability. 2020;12:4853. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1212....
26.
Musz-Pomorska A, Widomski MK. Analysis of the impact of the degree of catchment sealing on the operation of drainage system. Appl Water Sci. 2022;12:253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201....
27.
Semaan M, Day SD, Garvin M, et al. Optimal sizing of rainwater harvesting systems for domestic water usages: A systematic literature review. Resour Conserv Recycl X. 2020;6:100033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcrx....
28.
Ali S, Sang Y-F. Implementing rainwater harvesting systems as a novel approach for saving water and energy in flat urban areas. Sustain Cities Soc. 2023;89:104304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.....
29.
Suchorab P, Iwanek M. Efektywność wybranej instalacji dualnej wykorzystującej wody deszczowe w warunkach rzeczywistych opadów. Instal. 2021;435:41–5. https://doi.org/10.36119/15.20....
30.
Behzadian K, Kapelan Z, Mousavi SJ, et al. Can smart rainwater harvesting schemes result in the improved performance of integrated urban water systems? Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2018;25:19271–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356....
31.
Judeh T, Shahrour I, Comair F. Smart Rainwater Harvesting for Sustainable Potable Water Supply in Arid and Semi-Arid Areas. Sustainability. 2022;14:9271. https://doi.org/10.3390/su1415....
32.
Dao DA, Tran SH, Dang HTT, et al. Assessment of rainwater harvesting and maintenance practice for better drinking water quality in rural areas. J Water Supply Res Technol-Aqua. 2021;70:202–16. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2....
33.
Florides F, Giannakoudi M, Ioannou G, et al. Water Reuse: A Comprehensive Review Environ. 2024;11:81. https://doi.org/10.3390/enviro....
34.
Sheikh V. Perception of domestic rainwater harvesting by Iranian citizens. Sustain Cities Soc. 2020;60:102278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.....
35.
Jin Y, Lee S, Kang T, et al. Capacity Optimization of Rainwater Harvesting Systems Based on a Cost–Benefit Analysis: A Financial Support Program Review and Parametric Sensitivity Analysis. Water. 2023;15:186. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15010....
36.
Vidal P, Leiva AM, Gómez G, et al. Water Quality of Rainwater Harvesting Systems and Acceptance of Their Reuse in Young Users: An Exploratory Approach. Resources 2024;13:159. https://doi.org/10.3390/resour....
37.
De Sá Silva ACR, Bimbato AM, Balestieri JAP, et al. Exploring environmental, economic and social aspects of rainwater harvesting systems: A review. Sustain Cities Soc. 2022;76:103475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.....
38.
Snelling AM, Lamond J, Everett G, et al. Public perceptions of rainwater harvesting (RWH): comparing users and non-users of RWH systems. Urban Water J. 2024;21:181–9. https://doi.org/10.1080/157306....
39.
Gwenzi W, Dunjana N, Pisa C, et al. Water quality and public health risks associated with roof rainwater harvesting systems for potable supply: Review and perspectives. Sustain Water Qual Ecol. 2015;6:107–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.swaq....
40.
Mendez CB, Klenzendorf JB, Afshar BR, et al. The effect of roofing material on the quality of harvested rainwater. Water Res. 2011;45:2049–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watr....
41.
Ahmed W, Hamilton KA, Gyawali P, et al. Evidence of Avian and Possum Fecal Contamination in Rainwater Tanks as Determined by Microbial Source Tracking Approaches. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2016;82:4379–86. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00....
42.
Zhang X, Xia S, Ye Y, et al. Opportunistic pathogens exhibit distinct growth dynamics in rainwater and tap water storage systems. Water Res. 2021;204:117581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watr....
43.
Lay JJ, Vogel JR, Belden JB, et al. Water Quality and the First-Flush Effect in Roof-Based Rainwater Harvesting, Part II: First Flush. Water. 2024;16:1421. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16101....
44.
Müller A, Österlund H, Marsalek J, et al. The pollution conveyed by urban runoff: A review of sources. Sci Total Environ. 2020;709:136125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scit....
45.
Hamilton K, Reyneke B, Waso M, et al. A global review of the microbiological quality and potential health risks associated with roof-harvested rainwater tanks. Npj Clean Water. 2019;2:7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545....
46.
Ahmed W, Vieritz A, Goonetilleke A, et al. Health risk from the use of roof-harvested rainwater in Southeast Queensland, Australia, as potable or nonpotable water, determined using quantitative microbial risk assessment. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2010;76:7382–91. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00....
47.
Ahmed W, Hodgers L, Sidhu JPS, et al. Fecal indicators and zoonotic pathogens in household drinking water taps fed from rainwater tanks in Southeast Queensland, Australia. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2012;78:219–26. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.06....
48.
Denissen JK, Reyneke B, Waso M, et al. Human Pathogenic Bacteria Detected in Rainwater: Risk Assessment and Correlation to Microbial Source Tracking Markers and Traditional Indicators. Front Microbiol. 2021;12:659784. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.....
49.
Goshu G, Koelmans AA, De Klein JJM. Performance of faecal indicator bacteria, microbial source tracking, and pollution risk mapping in tropical water. Environ Pollut. 2021;276:116693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envp....
50.
Saxena G, Bharagava RN, Kaithwas G, et al. Microbial indicators, pathogens and methods for their monitoring in water environment. J Water Health. 2015;13:319–39. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.201....
51.
Richiardi L, Pignata C, Fea E, et al. Are Indicator Microorganisms Predictive of Pathogens in Water? Water. 2023;15:2964. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15162....
52.
Bae S, Maestre JP, Kinney KA, et al. An examination of the microbial community and occurrence of potential human pathogens in rainwater harvested from different roofing materials. Water Res. 2019;159:406–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watr....
53.
Harwood VJ, Staley C, Badgley BD, et al. Microbial source tracking markers for detection of fecal contamination in environmental waters: relationships between pathogens and human health outcomes. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2014;38:1–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/1574-6....
54.
Waso M, Khan S, Khan W. Microbial source tracking markers associated with domestic rainwater harvesting systems: Correlation to indicator organisms. Environ Res. 2018;161:446–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envr....
55.
Li E, Saleem F, Edge TA, et al. Biological Indicators for Fecal Pollution Detection and Source Tracking: A Review. Processes. 2021;9:2058. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9112....
56.
Skiendzielewski K, Burch T, Stokdyk J, et al. Two risk assessments: Evaluating the use of indicator HF183 Bacteroides versus pathogen measurements for modelling recreational illness risks in an urban watershed. Water Res. 2024;259:121852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watr....
57.
Lancaster E, Lee J. Advanced preparedness for drinking water emergency: Ensuring safe microbial quality with rapid microbial source tracking and E. coli methods. Environ Adv. 2023;13:100426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enva....
58.
The Human Microbiome Project Consortium. Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature. 2012;486:207–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature....
59.
Craun GF, Berger PS, Calderon RL. Coliform bacteria and waterborne disease outbreaks. J AWWA. 1997;89:96–104. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551....
60.
Holcomb DA, Stewart JR. Microbial Indicators of Fecal Pollution: Recent Progress and Challenges in Assessing Water Quality. Curr Environ Health Rep. 2020;7:311–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572....
61.
Denamur E, Clermont O, Bonacorsi S, et al. The population genetics of pathogenic Escherichia coli. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2021;19:37–54. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579....
62.
Wilson AM, Martin SL, Verhougstraete MP, et al. Detangling Seasonal Relationships of Fecal Contamination Sources and Correlates with Indicators in Michigan Watersheds. Microbiol Spectr. 2022;10:e00415–22. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectr....
63.
Dubin K, Pamer EG. Enterococci and Their Interactions with the Intestinal Microbiome. Microbiol Spectr 2017;5:5.6.01. https://doi.org/10.1128/microb....
64.
World Health Organization, editor. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Fourth edition incorporating the first addendum. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017.
65.
Ko HY, Cho K, Park S, et al. Host-Specific Bacteroides Markers-Based Microbial Source Tracking in Aquaculture Areas. Microbes Environ. 2018;33:151–61. https://doi.org/10.1264/jsme2.....
66.
Wang G, Paredes-Sabja D, Sarker MR, et al. Effects of wet heat treatment on the germination of individual spores of Clostridium perfringens. J Appl Microbiol. 2012;113:824–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365....
67.
Teixeira P, Dias D, Costa S, et al. Bacteroides spp. and traditional fecal indicator bacteria in water quality assessment – An integrated approach for hydric resources management in urban centers. J Environ Manage. 2020;271:110989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenv....
68.
Ahmed W, Hughes B, Harwood V. Current Status of Marker Genes of Bacteroides and Related Taxa for Identifying Sewage Pollution in Environmental Waters. Water. 2016;8:231. https://doi.org/10.3390/w80602....
69.
Ahmed W, Gyawali P, Feng S, et al. Host Specificity and Sensitivity of Established and Novel Sewage-Associated Marker Genes in Human and Nonhuman Fecal Samples. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2019;85:e00641–19. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.00....
70.
Wong K, Fong T-T, Bibby K, et al. Application of enteric viruses for fecal pollution source tracking in environmental waters. Environ Int. 2012;45:151–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envi....
71.
Kirs M, Moravcik P, Gyawali P, et al. Rainwater harvesting in American Samoa: current practices and indicative health risks. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2017;24:12384–92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356....
72.
Chapman HF, Cartwright T, Huston R, et al. Water Quality and Health Risks from Urban Rainwater Tanks. Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment; 2008.
73.
Zdeb M, Zamorska J, Papciak D, et al. Investigation of Microbiological Quality Changes of Roof-Harvested Rainwater Stored in the Tanks. Resources. 2021;10:103. https://doi.org/10.3390/resour....
74.
Bobková Š, Baudišová D, Kožíšek F, et al. Quality of rainwater and reclaimed water used in buildings and selection of appropriate indicators. Cent Eur J Public Health. 2023;31:155–65. https://doi.org/10.21101/cejph....
75.
Moses A, Ramírez-Andreotta MD, McLain JET, et al. Assessing the impact of rainwater harvesting infrastructure and gardening trends on microbial indicator organism presence in harvested rainwater and garden soils. J Appl Microbiol. 2023;134:lxad110. https://doi.org/10.1093/jambio....
76.
Chubaka CE, Whiley H, Edwards JW, et al. A Review of Roof Harvested Rainwater in Australia. J Environ Public Health 2018;2018:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6....
77.
Kaushik R, Balasubramanian R, Dunstan H. Microbial Quality and Phylogenetic Diversity of Fresh Rainwater and Tropical Freshwater Reservoir. PLoS ONE. 2014;9:e100737. https://doi.org/10.1371/journa....
78.
Staley C, Gordon KV, Schoen ME, et al. Performance of Two Quantitative PCR Methods for Microbial Source Tracking of Human Sewage and Implications for Microbial Risk Assessment in Recreational Waters. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2012;78:7317–26. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01....
79.
Anindita M, Rahman A, Alim MA, et al. Microbial ecology of harvested rainwater: Assessing quality, antimicrobial resistance and geographical variation. J Clean Prod. 2025;486:144439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcle....
80.
Szeląg B, Barros V, Kiczko A, et al. A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) framework for optimizing harvestable volume in stormwater reuse systems. Ecol Eng. 2026;227:107964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecol....
81.
Owens CEL, Angles ML, Cox PT, et al. Implementation of quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) for public drinking water supplies: Systematic review. Water Res. 2020;174:115614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watr....
82.
Szelag B, De Simoni L, Kiczko A, et al. Towards stormwater reuse risk management plans: Methodology and catchment scale evaluation of QMRA. Sci Total Environ. 2025;964:178552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scit....
83.
Zhang Q, Gallard J, Wu B, et al. Synergy between quantitative microbial source tracking (qMST) and quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA): A review and prospectus. Environ Int. 2019;130:104703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envi....
84.
Heyworth J, Glonek G, Maynard E, et al. Consumption of untreated tank rainwater and gastroenteritis among young children in South Australia. Int J Epidemiol. 2006;35:1051–8. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dy....
85.
Dean JME, Deare F, Kydd K, et al. Rainwater harvesting in rural Trinidad; a cross sectional, observational study. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev. 2012;2:241–9. https://doi.org/10.2166/washde....
86.
Pham-Duc P, Nguyen-Viet H, Hattendorf J, et al. Diarrhoeal diseases among adult population in an agricultural community Hanam province, Vietnam, with high wastewater and excreta re-use. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:978. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2....
87.
Hora JD, Cohim EB, Sipert S, et al. Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) of Campylobacter for Roof-Harvested Rainwater Domestic Use. 2nd Int. Electron. Conf. Water Sci., MDPI; 2017. p. 185. https://doi.org/10.3390/ecws-2....
88.
Lim K-Y, Jiang SC. Reevaluation of health risk benchmark for sustainable water practice through risk analysis of rooftop-harvested rainwater. Water Res. 2013;47:7273–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watr....
89.
Schoen ME, Xue X, Hawkins TR, et al. Comparative Human Health Risk Analysis of Coastal Community Water and Waste Service Options. Environ Sci Technol. 2014;48:9728–36. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5012....
90.
Fewtrell L, Kay D. Quantitative microbial risk assessment with respect to Campylobacter spp. in toilets flushed with harvested rainwater. Water Environ J. 2007;21:275–80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747....
Share
RELATED ARTICLE
| eISSN: | 1898-2263 |
| ISSN: | 1232-1966 |
Generation of the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) - task financed under the agreement No NrRCN/SP/0532/2021/1 by the Minister of Science and Higher
© 2006-2026 Journal hosting platform by Bentus
We process personal data collected when visiting the website. The function of obtaining information about users and their behavior is carried out by voluntarily entered information in forms and saving cookies in end devices. Data, including cookies, are used to provide services, improve the user experience and to analyze the traffic in accordance with the Privacy policy. Data are also collected and processed by Google Analytics tool (more).
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
