REVIEW PAPER
 
KEYWORDS
TOPICS
ABSTRACT
Introduction and objective:
Mosquitoes are the most important vector group for humans, and three genera – Aedes, Anopheles and Culex, are of greatest significance in the transmission of pathogens to humans and animals. The geographical expansion of vectors can lead to the spread diseases into new regions. Soldiers exercise in the field, participate in missions, or are stationed in Military Contingents located in different climatic conditions, which is directly related to exposure to mosquitoborne diseases.

Objective:
The aim is to describe the role of mosquitoes in the transmission of selected pathogens of medical and epidemiological importance, which pose a new threat in Europe, pointing to soldiers and other military personnel as particularly vulnerable occupational groups.

Review Methods:
PubMed and other online resources and publications were searched to evaluate scientific relevance.

Brief description of the state of knowledge.:
In recent years in Europe, attention has been drawn to emerging infectious diseases transmitted by mosquitoes, including malaria, Dengue fever, West Nile fever and Chikungunya fever. West Nile virus infections were recorded in many European countries, including Greece, Italy, Germany and Austria. Soldiers, due to their tasks, are particularly vulnerable to vector-borne diseases. In order to reduce the exposure of soldiers to mosquito-borne diseases various protection measures are used.

Summary:
Some of vector-borne diseases belong to emerging infectious diseases and may pose a threat to public health. The burden on soldiers with these diseases can be significant, which is the reason why methods of surveillance and the control of vectors are being developed.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by Ministry of Health in 2021–2025 as part of the National Health Program (agreement No. 364/2021/DA of 29 November 2021).
 
REFERENCES (88)
1.
Huntington MK, Allison J, Nair D. Emerging Vector-Borne Diseases. Am Fam Physician. 2016;94(7):551–557.
 
2.
Henszel Ł, Janiec J, Izdebski R, et al. Emerging infectious diseases not covered by routine vaccination in Europe in 2010–2015 – the review of WHO and ECDC notifications for the National IHR Focal Point in Poland. Przegl Epidemiol. 2015;69:679–686.
 
3.
McArthur DB. Emerging Infectious Diseases. Nurs Clin N Am. 2019;54(2):297–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cnur....
 
4.
Weaver SC, Charlier C, Vasilakis N, et al. Zika, Chikungunya, and Other Emerging Vector-Borne Viral Diseases. Annu Rev Med. 2018;69:395–408. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-050715-105122.
 
5.
Sigfrid L, Reusken C, Eckerle I, et al. Preparing clinicians for (re-)emerging arbovirus infectious diseases in Europe. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2018;24(3):229–239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cm....
 
6.
Chala B, Hamde F. Emerging and Re-emerging Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases and the Challenges for Control: A Review. Front Public Health. 2021;9:715759. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.715759.
 
7.
Semenza JC, Suk JE. Vector-borne diseases and climate change: a European perspective. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2018;365(2):fnx244. doi: 10.1093/femsle/fnx244.
 
8.
Kuna A, Gajewski M, Biernat B. Selected arboviral diseases imported to Poland – current state of knowledge and perspectives for research. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2019;26(3):385–391. doi: 10.26444/aaem/102471.
 
9.
El-Sayed A, Kamel M. Climatic changes and their role in emergence and re-emergence of diseases. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2020;27(18):22336–22352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356....
 
10.
Faburay B. The case for a ‘one health’ approach to combating vector-borne diseases. Infect Ecol Epidemiol. 2015;5:28132. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/iee.....
 
11.
Paternoster G, Tomassone L, Tamba M, et al. The Degree of One Health Implementation in the West Nile Virus Integrated Surveillance in Northern Italy, 2016. Front Public Health. 2017;5:236. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.....
 
12.
Sinclair JR. Importance of a One Health approach in advancing global health security and the Sustainable Development Goals. Rev Sci Tech Off Int Epiz. 2019;38(1):145–154. doi: 10.20506/rst.38.1.2949.
 
13.
Ministry of National Defence website https://www.gov.pl/web/obrona-... (access: 2021.06.07).
 
14.
Kowalska-Ulczyńska B, Giłka W. Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) of the vicinity of Wyskok in the Masuria. Wiad Entomol. 2003;22(2):91–100. Article in Polish.
 
15.
Krasoń K, Larska M. The risk of diseases transmitted by insect vectors in animals in Europe. Post Mikrobiol. 2018;57(4):385–397. doi: 10.21307/PM-2018.57.4.385.
 
16.
Lwande OW, Obanda V, Lindström A, et al. Globe-Trotting Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus: Risk Factors for Arbovirus Pandemics. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2020;20(2):71–81. doi: 10.1089/vbz.2019.2486.
 
17.
Abdullahi AM, Sarmast ST, Singh R. Molecular Biology and Epidemiology of Neurotropic Viruses. Cureus 2020;12(8):e9674. doi: 10.7759/cureus.9674.
 
18.
Medlock JM, Hansford KM, Versteirt V, et al. An entomological review of invasive mosquitoes in Europe. Bull Entomol Res. 2015;105:637–663. doi:10.1017/S0007485315000103.
 
19.
Reinhold JM, Lazzari CR, Lahondère C. Effects of the Environmental Temperature on Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus Mosquitoes: A Review. Insects. 2018;9(4):158. doi:10.3390/insects9040158.
 
20.
World Health Organization Vector-borne diseases https://www.who.int/news-room/... (access: 2021.11.30).
 
21.
Mansfield KL, Jizhou L, Phipps LP, et al. Emerging tick-borne viruses in the twenty-first century. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2017;7:298. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00298.
 
22.
Paixão ES, Teixeira MG, Rodrigues LC. Zika, chikungunya and dengue: the causes and threats of new and re-emerging arboviral diseases. BMJ Glob Health. 2017;3: e000530. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000530.
 
23.
Pierson TC, Diamond MS. The Continued Emerging Threat of Flaviviruses. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(6):796–812. doi:10.1038/s41564-020-0714-0.
 
24.
Niczyporuk SJ. West Nile Virus in Poland – real threat in the light of the reports from the Conference “The current problems concerning bloodborne pathogens” (10 March 2017, Warsaw). J Transf Med. 2017;10(2):54–62. Article in Polish.
 
25.
de Castro-Jorge LA, Lima Siconelli MJ, dos Santos Ribeiro B, et al. West Nile virus infections are here! Are we prepared to face another flavivirus epidemic? Rev Soc Bras Med Trop. 2019;52: e20190089. doi: 10.1590/0037-8682-0089-2018.
 
26.
Meyding-Lamadé U, Craemer E, Schnitzler P. Emerging and re-emerging viruses affecting the nervous system. Neurol Res Pract. 2019;1(20). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42466....
 
27.
Vonesch N, Binazzi A, Bonafede M, et al. Emerging zoonotic viral infections of occupational health importance. Pathog Dis. 2019;77(2):ftz018. doi:10.1093/femspd/ftz018.
 
28.
Zannoli S, Sambri V. West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Co-Circulation in Europe: Epidemiology and Implications. Microorganisms. 2019;7(7):184. doi:10.3390/microorganisms7070184.
 
29.
Vilibic-Cavlek T, Savic V, Klobucar A, et al. Emerging Trends in the West Nile Virus Epidemiology in Croatia in the ‘One Health’ Context, 2011–2020. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2021;6(3):140. https://doi.org/10.3390/tropic....
 
30.
Moniuszko-Malinowska A, Czupryna P, Dunaj J, et al. West Nile virus and USUTU – a threat to Poland. Przegl Epidemiol. 2016;70(1):7–10;99–102.
 
31.
Kubica-Biernat B, Kruminis-Łozowska W, Stańczak J, et al. A study on the occurrence of West Nile virus in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) on the selected areas in Poland. Wiad Parazytol. 2009;55(3):259–263. Article in Polish.
 
32.
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Communicable Disease Threats Report, week 45, 7–13 November 2021. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/... (access: 2021.12.04).
 
33.
Żarnowska-Prymek H, Cielecka D, Salamatin R. Dirofilariasis – Dirofilaria repens – first time described in Polish patients. Przegl Epidemiol. 2008;62(3):547–551. Article in Polish.
 
34.
Capelli G, Genchi C, Baneth G, et al. Recent advances on Dirofilaria repens in dogs and humans in Europe. Parasit Vectors. 2018;11(1):663. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071....
 
35.
Cielecka D, Żarnowska-Prymek H, Masny A, et al. Human dirofilariosis in Poland: the first cases of autochthonous infections with Dirofilaria repens. Ann Agric Environ Med. 2012;19(3):445–450.
 
36.
Fuehrer HP, Morelli S, Unterköfler MS, et al. Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: Current Risk of Spreading in Central and Northern Europe. Pathogens. 2021;10(10):1268. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathog....
 
37.
Masny A, Sałamatin R, Rożej-Bielicka W, et al. Is molecular xenomonitoring of mosquitoes for Dirofilaria repens suitable for dirofilariosis surveillance in endemic regions? Parasit Res. 2016;115(2):511–525. doi: 10.1007/s00436-015-4767-6.
 
38.
Rydzanicz K, Gołąb E, Rożej-Bielicka W, et al. Screening of mosquitoes for filarioid helminths in urban areas in south western Poland – common patterns in European Setaria tundra xenomonitoring studies. Parasitol Res. 2019;118(1):127–138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436....
 
39.
Pathak VK, Mohan M. A notorious vector-borne disease: Dengue fever, its evolution as public health threat. J Family Med Prim Care 2019;8(10):3125–3129. doi:10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_716_19.
 
40.
Harapan H, Michie A, Sasmono RT, et al. Dengue: A Minireview. Viruses. 2020;12:829. doi:10.3390/v12080829.
 
41.
Roy SK, Bhattacharjee S. Dengue virus: epidemiology, biology, and disease aetiology. Can J Microbiol. 2021;67(10):687–702. dx.doi.org/10.1139/cjm-2020-0572.
 
42.
Pancer K, Szkoda MT, Gut W. Imported cases of dengue in Poland and their diagnosis. Przegl Epidemiol. 2014;68(4):651–655.
 
43.
Walczak A. About the needs of anti-malarial prophylactics among Polish travellers. Probl Hig Epidemiol. 2014;95(1):1–5. Article in Polish.
 
44.
Malchrzak W, Rymer W, Inglot M. Imported malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum – case report. Przegl Epidemiol. 2018;72(3):363–370. doi:10.32394/pe.72.3.12.
 
45.
Kulawiak N, Borys S, Roszko-Wysokińska A, et al. Challenges in the diagnosis and treatment of malaria in Polish workers returning from Africa: a case series and review of literature. Int Marit Health. 2022;73(1):46–51. doi: 10.5603/IMH.2022.0006.
 
46.
Sadkowska-Todys M, Zieliński A, Czarkowski MP. Infectious diseases in Poland in 2016. Przegl Epidemiol. 2018;72(2):129–141.
 
47.
Stępień M. Malaria in Poland in 2014–2018. Przegl Epidemiol. 2019;73(2):201–209. https://doi.org/10.32394/pe.73....
 
48.
Korzeniewski K. Viral haemorrhagic fevers. Forum Med Rodz. 2012;6(5):205–221. Article in Polish.
 
49.
Sacchetto L, Drumond BP, Han BA, et al. Re-emergence of yellow fever in the neotropics – quo vadis? Emerg Top Life Sci. 2020;4(4):411–422. https://doi.org/10.1042/ETLS20....
 
50.
Socha W, Kwaśnik M, Larska M, et al. Vector-Borne Viral Diseases as a Current Threat for Human and Animal Health – One Health Perspective. J Clin Med. 2022;11(11):3026. https://doi.org/10.3390/ jcm11113026.
 
51.
Cholewiński M, Derda M, Klimberg A, et al. Vectors carrying parasitic, bacterial and viral diseases in humans. I. Flies (Diptera). Hygeia Public Health 2017;52(2):96–102. Article in Polish.
 
52.
Chippaux JP, Chippaux A. Yellow fever in Africa and the Americas: a historical and epidemiological perspective. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis. 2018;24:20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40409....
 
53.
Gańczak M. Zika – an emerging infectious disease. The risk assessment from Polish perspective. Przegl Epidemiol. 2016;70(1):1–6, 93–97.
 
54.
Agumadu VC, Ramphul K. Zika Virus: A Review of Literature. Cureus 2018;10(7):e3025. doi: 10.7759/cureus.3025.
 
55.
Kazmi SS, Ali W, Bibi N, et al. A review on Zika virus outbreak, epidemiology, transmission and infection dynamics. J of Biol Res- Thessaloniki. 2020;27:5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40709....
 
56.
Sharma V, Sharma M, Dhull D, et al. Zika virus: an emerging challenge to public health worldwide. Can J Microbiol. 2020;66(2):87–98. dx.doi. org/10.1139/cjm-2019-0331.
 
57.
Gliński Z, Kostro K. Can domestic animals get infected with Zika virus? Życie Wet. 2016;91(4):228–231. Article in Polish.
 
58.
Masmejan S, Musso D, Vouga M, et al. Zika Virus. Pathogens. 2020;9(11):898. doi:10.3390/pathogens9110898.
 
59.
Walczak A, Milona M. Potential threat for Polish travellers – Chikungunya fever. Probl Hig Epidemiol. 2015;96(2):329–334. Article in Polish.
 
60.
Silva LA, Dermody TS. Chikungunya vius: epidemiology, replication, disease mechanisms, and prospective intervention strategies. J Clin Invest. 2017;127(3):737–749. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI844....
 
61.
Moizéis RNC, de Medeiros Fernandes TAA, da Matta Guedes PM, et al. Chikungunya fever: a threat to global public health. Pathog Glob Health. 2018;112(4):182–194. https://doi.org/10.1080/204777... .2018.1478777.
 
62.
Silva JVJ, Ludwig-Begall LF, de Oliveira-Filho EF, et al. A scoping review of Chikungunya virus infection: epidemiology, clinical characteristics, viral co-circulation complications, and control. Acta Trop. 2018;188:213–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acta....
 
63.
Tjaden NB, Cheng Y, Beierkuhnlein C, et al. Chikungunya Beyond the Tropics: Where and When Do We Expect Disease Transmission in Europe? Viruses 2021;13:1024. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13061....
 
64.
World Health Organization, Fact sheet – Chikungunya in the WHO European Region. https://www.euro.who.int/en/me... fact-sheets/2014/03/fact-sheets-world-health-day-2014-vector-bornediseases/ fact-sheet-chikungunya-in-the-who-european-region (access: 2021.12.04).
 
65.
Pearce JC, Learoyd TP, Langendorf BJ, et al. Japanese encephalitis: the vectors, ecology, and potential for expansion. J Travel Med. 2018;25, Suppl 1:S16-S26. doi: 10.1093/jtm/tay009.
 
66.
van den Hurk AF, Pyke AT, Mackenzie JS, et al. Japanese Encephalitis Virus in Australia: From Known Known to Know Unknown. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2019;4(1):38. doi:10.3390/tropicalmed4010038.
 
67.
Mulvey P, Duong V, Boyer S, et al. The Ecology and Evolution of Japanese Encephalitis Virus. Pathogens. 2021;10(12):1534. https://doi. org/10.3390/pathogens10121534.
 
68.
Caldwell M, Boruah AP, Thakur KT. Acute neurologic emerging flaviviruses. Ther Adv Infect Dis. 2022;9:1–19. doi: 10.1177/20499361221102664.
 
69.
Smallman-Raynor MR, Cliff AD. Impact of infectious diseases on war. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2004;18(2):341–368. doi: 10.1016/j. idc.2004.01.009.
 
70.
Prinzing F, Westergaard H. Epidemics resulting from wars. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1916.
 
71.
Hoeffler DF, Melton LJ 3rd. Changes in the distribution of Navy and Marine Corps casualties from World War I through the Vietnam conflict. Mil Med. 1981;146(11):776–779.
 
72.
Mc Coy OR. Incidence of insect-borne diseases in US Army during World War II. Mosq News. 1946;6(4):214.
 
73.
Gayer M, Legros D, Formenty P, et al. Conflict and emerging infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(11):1625–1631. doi: 10.3201/ eid1311.061093.
 
74.
Morse SS. Factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis. 1995;1(1):7–15. doi: 10.3201/eid0101.950102.
 
75.
Zapor MJ, Moran KA. Infectious diseases during wartime. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2005;18(5):395–399. doi: 10.1097/01.qco.0000182102.50430.2c.
 
76.
Pages F. Vector control for armed forces: a historical requirement requiring continual adaptation. Med Trop. (Mars) 2009;69(2):165–172.
 
77.
Britch SC, Linthicum KJ, Anyamba A, et al. Satellite vegetation index data as a tool to forecast population dynamics of medically important mosquitoes at military installations in the continental United States. Mil Med. 2008;173(7):677–683. doi: 10.7205/milmed.173.7.677.
 
78.
Machault V, Orlandi-Pradines E, Michel R, et al. Remote sensing and malaria risk for military personnel in Africa. J Travel Med.2008;15(4):216–220. doi: 10.1111/j.1708-8305.2008.00202.x.
 
79.
Faulde MK, Uedelhoven WM, Malerius M, et al. Factory-based permethrin impregnation of uniforms: residual activity against Aedes aegypti and Ixodes ricinus in battle dress uniforms worn under field conditions, and cross-contamination during the laundering and storage process. Mil Med. 2006;171(6):472–477. doi: 10.7205/milmed.171.6.472.
 
80.
Coleman RE, Hochberg LP, Putnam JL, et al. Use of vector diagnostics during military deployments: recent experience in Iraq and Afghanistan. Mil Med. 2009;174(9):904–920. doi: 10.7205/milmed-d-00-2509.
 
81.
Hanafi HA, Fryauff DJ, Modi GB, et al. Bionomics of phlebotomine sandflies at a peacekeeping duty site in the north of Sinai, Egypt. Acta Trop. 2007;101(2):106–114. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2006.12.005.
 
82.
Girod R, Orlandi-Pradines E, Rogier C, et al. Malaria transmission and insecticide resistance of Anopheles gambiae (Diptera: Culicidae) in the French military camp of Port-Bouët, Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire): implications for vector control. J Med Entomol. 2006;43(5):1082–1087. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2006)43[1082:mtairo]2.0.co;2.
 
83.
Pagès F, Texier G, Pradines B, et al. Malaria transmission in Dakar: a two-year survey. Malar J. 2008;7:178. doi: 10.1186/1475-2875-7-178.
 
84.
Kitchen LW, Lawrence KL, Coleman RE. The role of the United States military in the development of vector control products, including insect repellents, insecticides, and bed nets. J Vector Ecol. 2009;34(1):50–61. doi: 10.1111/j.1948-7134.2009.00007.x.
 
85.
Lang JT. Contributions of military pest management to preventive medicine. Mil Med. 1988;153(3):137–139.
 
86.
NATO Allied Joint Publication AJP-4.10, Edition C, Version 1, Allied Joint Doctrine for Medical Support, 2019.
 
87.
Allied Medical Publication AMedP-4.2, Edition A, Version 2, Deployment Pests and Disease Vectors Surveillance and Control, 2017.
 
88.
Standards Related Document AMedP-4.2-1, Edition A Version 1, Contingency Pest, and Vector Surveillance, 2018.
 
eISSN:1898-2263
ISSN:1232-1966
Journals System - logo
Scroll to top