REVIEW PAPER
Endotoxins and β-glucans as markers of microbiological contamination-characteristics, detection, and environmental exposure.
1
Biohazard Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Aerosol Hazards, Central Institute for Labour Protection-National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
Corresponding author
Anna Ławniczek-Wałczyk
Biohazard Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Aerosol Hazards, Central Institute for Labour Protection-National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
Biohazard Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Aerosol Hazards, Central Institute for Labour Protection-National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
Ann Agric Environ Med. 2010;17(2):193-208
KEYWORDS
ABSTRACT
Endotoxins and β-glucans are one of the major markers of microbiological contamination. As components of biological aerosols, they are ubiquitous in many environments. Numerous studies performed during the last three decades have proved that exposure to endotoxins and β-glucans could be associated with many diseases and/or adverse health outcomes. The aim of this review is to present the current stage of knowledge regarding endotoxins and β-glucans as biologically active components of aerosols and to characterize the quantitative methods for their detection in environmental samples. The problems of occupational exposure to both these components and their control procedures are also discussed. An overview of the available worldwide and Polish standards and threshold limit values is also given.
REFERENCES (194)
1.
ACC Glucatell: Associates of Cape Cod, Inc.: Pyroquant Diagnostik GmbH. Instruction for Use GLUCATELL. Beta-(1,3)-D-glucan Detection Reagent Kit. Cat. No. GT002. ACC, Falmouth 2007.
2.
ACC Limulus: Associates of Cape Cod, Inc.: Limulus Amebocyte Lysate CHROMO-LAL for the Detection and Quantitation of Gram-negative Bacterial Endotoxins (Lipopolysaccharides). Cat. No. C0031. ACC, Falmouth 2007.
3.
Alving CR, Rao M: Lipid A and liposomes containing lipid A as antigens and adjuvants. Vaccine 2008, 26, 3036–3045.
4.
Andreani V, Gatti G, Simonella L, Rivero V, Maccioni M: Activation of Toll-like receptor 4 on tumor cells in vitro inhibits subsequent tumor growth in vivo. Cancer Res 2007, 67, 10519–10527.
5.
Ashitani J, Kyoraku Y, Yanagi S, Matsumoto N, Nakazato M: Elevated levels of ß-D-glucan in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in patients with farmer’s lung in Miyazaki, Japan. Respiration 2008, 75, 182–188.
6.
Augustyńska D, Pośniak M (Eds): Harmful Agents in the Working Environment – Admissible Values. CIOP-PIB, Warsaw 2007.
7.
Bakutis B, Monstviliene E, Januskeviciene G: Analyses of airborne contamination with bacteria, endotoxins and dust in livestock barns and poultry houses. Acta Vet (Brno) 2004, 73, 283–289.
8.
Bang FB: A bacterial disease of Limulus polyphemus. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 1956, 98, 325–351.
9.
Beijer L, Thorn J, Rylander R: Effects after inhalation of (1›3)-ß-D-glucan and relation to mould exposure in the home. Mediat Inflamm 2002, 11, 149–153.
10.
Beijer L, Thorn J, Rylander R: Mould exposure at home relates to inflammatory markers in blood. Eur Respir J 2003, 21, 317–322.
11.
Bonlokke JH, Mériaux A, Duchaine C, Godbout S, Cormier Y: Seasonal variations in work-related health effects in swine farm workers. Ann Agric Environ Med 2009, 16, 43–52.
12.
Branderburg K, Wiese A: Endotoxins: relationships between structure, function, and activity. Curr Top Med Chem 2004, 4, 1127–1146.
13.
Braun-Fahrländer C, Riedler J, Herz U, Eder W, Waser M, Grize L, Maisch S, Carr D, Gerlach F, Bufe A, Lauener RP, Schierl R, Renz H, Nowak D, von Mutius E: Allergy and endotoxin study team: environmental exposure to endotoxin and its relation to asthma in school-age children. N Engl J Med 2002, 347, 869–877.
14.
Browder W, Williams D, Pretus H, Olivero G, Enrichens F, Mao P, Franchello A: Beneficial effect of enhanced macrophage function in the trauma patient. Ann Surg 1990, 211, 605–612.
15.
Burch JB, Svendsen E, Siegel PD, Wagner SE, von Essen S, Keefe T, Mehaffy J, Martinez AS, Bradford M, Baker L, Cranmer B, Saito R, Tessari J, Linda P, Andersen C, Christensen O, Koehncke N, Reynolds SJ: Endotoxin exposure and inflammation markers among agricultural workers in Colorado and Nebraska. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2010, 73, 5–22.
16.
Burrell R, Ye SH: Toxic risks from inhalation of bacterial endotoxin. Br J Ind Med 1990, 47, 688–691.
17.
Cambi A, Netea MG, Mora-Montes HM, Gow NA, Hato SV, Lowman DW, Kullberg BJ, Torensma R, Williams DL, Figdor CG: Dendritic cell interaction with Candida albicans critically depends on N-linked mannan. J Biol Chem 2008, 283, 20590–20599.
18.
Cambrex: Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) Kinetic-QCL. Cat. No. 50–650. Cambrex, Walkersville 2008.
19.
Castellan RM, Olenchock SA, Kinsley KB, Hankinson JL: Inhaled endotoxin and decreased spirometric values. An exposure-response relation for cotton dust. N Eng J Med 1987, 317, 605–610.
20.
Chen L: Reckoning recombinant Factor C. Pharm Formulation Quality 2006, 7, 58–60.
21.
Christiani DC, Wegman DH, Eisen EA, Ye TT, Lu PL, Olenchock SA: Cotton dust and gram-negative bacterial endotoxin correlations in two cotton textile mills. Am J Ind Med 1993, 23, 333–342.
22.
Clark CS: Report on prevention and control. Proceedings of an International Workshop “Health Effects of Organic Dusts in the Farm Environment” held in Skokloster, Sweden, April 23-25, 1985. Am J Ind Med 1985, 10, 267–273.
23.
Dawson ME: A wealth of options, choosing an LAL test method. LAL Update 1995, 13, 1–6.
24.
DECOS – Dutch Expert Committee on Occupational Standards: Endotoxins: Health Based Recommended Occupational Exposure Limit. DECOS, Den Haag 1998.
25.
DeLucca AJ, Brogden KA, Catalano EA, Morris NM: Biophysical alteration of lung surfactant by extracts of cotton dust. Br J Ind Med 1991, 48, 41–47.
26.
DeLucca AJ, Godshall MA, Palmgren MS: Gram-negative bacterial endotoxins in grain elevator dusts. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1984, 45, 336–339.
27.
Demanche A, Bonlokke J, Beaulieu MJ, Assayag E, Cormier Y: Swine confinement buildings: effects of airborne particles and settled dust on airway smooth muscles. Ann Agric Environ Med 2009, 16, 233–238.
28.
Dennekamp M, Demers PA, Bartlett K, Davies H, Teschke K: Endotoxin exposure among softwood lumber mill workers in the Canadian province of British Columbia. Ann Agric Environ Med 1999, 6, 141–146.
29.
Devleeschouwer MJ, Cornil MF, Dony J: Studies on the sensitivity and specificity of the Limulus amebocyte lysate test and rabbit pyrogen assays. Appl Environ Microbiol 1985, 50, 1509–1511.
30.
Donham K, Cumro D, Reynolds SJ, Merchant JA: Dose-response relationships between occupational aerosol exposures and cross-shift declines of lung function in poultry workers: recommendations for exposure limits. J Occup Environ Med 2000, 42, 260–269.
31.
Donham KJ: Association of environmental air contaminants with disease and productivity in swine. Am J Vet Res 1991, 52, 1723–1730.
32.
Douwes J: (1›3)-ß-D-glucans and respiratory health: a review of the scientific evidence. Indoor Air 2005, 15, 160–169.
33.
Douwes J: Respiratory Health Effect of Indoor Microbial Exposure: a Contribution to the Development of Exposure Assessment Methods. Ph.D. thesis. Wageningen University, Wageningen 1998.
34.
Douwes J, Doekes G, Montijn R, Heederik D, Brunekreef B: Measurement of ß(1›3)-glucans in occupational and home environments with an inhibition enzyme immunoassay. Appl Environ Microbiol 1996, 62, 3176–3182.
35.
Douwes J, Thorne P, Pearce N, Heederik D: Bioaerosol health effects and exposure assessment: progress and prospects. Ann Occup Hyg 2003, 47, 187–200.
36.
Dungan RS, Leytem AB: The effect of extraction, storage, and analysis techniques on the measurement of airborne endotoxin from a large dairy. Aerobiologia 2009, 25, 265–273.
37.
Dutkiewicz J: Bacteria and fungi in organic dust as potential health hazard. Ann Agric Environ Med 1997, 4, 11–16.
38.
Dutkiewicz J: Bacteria, fungi, and endotoxin as potential agents of occupational hazard in a potato processing plant. Am J Ind Med 1994, 25, 43–46.
40.
Dutkiewicz J, Krysińska-Traczyk E, Skórska C, Sitkowska J, Prażmo Z, Urbanowicz B: Exposure of agricultural workers to airborne microorganisms and endotoxin during handling of various vegetable products. Aerobiologia 2000, 16, 193–198.
41.
Dutkiewicz J, Pomorski ZJH, Sitkowska J, Krysińska-Traczyk E, Skórska C, Prażmo Z, Cholewa G, Wójtowicz H: Airborne microorganisms and endotoxin in animal houses. Grana 1994, 33, 185–190.
42.
Dutkiewicz J, Tucker J, Burrell R, Olenchock SA, Schwegler-Berry D, Keller III GE, Ochalska B, Kaczmarski F, Skórska C: Ultrastructure of the endotoxin produced by Gram-negative bacteria associated with organic dust. System Appl Microbiol 1992, 15, 474–485.
43.
Ewers LM, Tapp LC: Endotoxin exposures during potato processing. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 2001, 16, 1079–1087.
44.
Fishwick D, Allan LJ, Wright A, Curran AD: Assessment of exposure to organic dust in a hemp processing plant. Ann Occup Hyg 2001, 45, 577–583.
45.
Fogelmark B, Goto H, Yuasa K, Marchat B, Rylander R: Acute pulmonary toxicity of inhaled ß-1,3-glucan and endotoxin. Agents Action 1992, 35, 50–56.
46.
Fogelmark B, Sjöstrand M, Rylander R: Pulmonary inflammation induced by repeated inhalations of beta-(1,3)-D-glucan and endotoxin. Int J Exp Pathol 1994, 75, 85–90.
47.
Gehring U, Bischof W, Fahlbusch B, Wichmann HE, Heinrich J: House dust endotoxin and allergic sensitization in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002, 166, 939–944.
48.
Gehring U, Douwes J, Doekes G, Koch A, Bischof W, Fahlbusch B, Richter K, Wichmann HE, Heinrich J: ß(1›3)-glucan in house dust of German homes: housing characteristics, occupant behavior, and relations with endotoxins, allergens, and molds. Environ Health Perspect 2001, 109, 139–144.
49.
Gereda JE, Leung DYM, Liu AH: Levels of environmental endotoxin and prevalence of atopic disease [Letter]. JAMA 2000, 284, 1652–1653.
50.
Gereda JE, Leung DYM, Thatayatikom A, Streib JE, Price MR, Klinnert MD, Liu AH: Relation between house-dust endotoxin exposure, type 1 T-cell development, and allergen sensitization in infants at high risk of asthma. Lancet 2000, 355, 1680–1683.
51.
Golec M, Reichel C, Mackiewicz B, Skórska C, Curzytek K, Lemieszek M, Dutkiewicz J, Góra A, Ziesche R, Boltuc J, Sodolska K, Milanowski J, Śpiewak R: Cathelicidin LL-37, granzymes, TGF-beta1 and cytokines levels in induced sputum from farmers with and without COPD. Ann Agric Environ Med 2009, 16, 289–297.
53.
Góra A, Mackiewicz B, Krawczyk P, Golec M, Skórska C, Sitkowska J, Cholewa G, Larsson L, Jarosz M, Wójcik-Fatla A, Dutkiewicz J: Occupational exposure to organic dust, microorganisms, endotoxin and peptidoglycan among plants processing workers in Poland. Ann Agric Environ Med 2009, 16, 143–150.
54.
Górny RL: Biohazards: standards, guidelines, and proposals for threshold limit values. PiMOŚP 2004, 3, 17–39.
55.
Górny RL: Characterization of Particulate Aerosols and Bioaerosols in the Dwellings Located on the Territory of the Upper Silesia Conurbation. Ph.D. thesis. Silesian Medical Academy, Katowice 1998.
56.
Górny RL, Anczyk E, Dutkiewicz J: The role of standards and limit values for biological agents in protection of workers health – a view from Europe. In: Proceedings of the 18th World Congress on Safety and Health at Work, Seoul, 29 June-2 July 2008, PS04-57. KOSHA, Incheon 2008.
57.
Górny RL, Douwes J, Versloot P, Heederik D, Dutkiewicz J: Application of the classic Limulus test and the quantitative kinetic chromogenic LAL method for evaluation of endotoxin concentration in indoor air. Ann Agric Environ Med 1999, 6, 45–51.
58.
Górny RL, Szponar B, Larsson L, Pehrson C, Prażmo Z, Dutkiewicz J: Metalworking fluid bioaerosols at selected workplaces in a steelworks. Am J Ind Med 2004, 46, 400–403.
59.
Gutsmann T, Schromm AB, Brandenburg K: The physicochemistry of endotoxins in relation to bioactivity. Int J Med Microbiol 2007, 297, 341–352.
60.
Haglind P, Rylander R: Exposure to cotton dust in an experimental cardroom. Brit J Ind Med 1984, 41, 340.
61.
Halstensen AS, Nordby KC, Wouters IM, Eduard W: Determinants of microbial exposure in grain farming. Ann Occup Hyg 2007, 51, 581–592.
62.
Harper M, Andrew ME: Airborne endotoxin in woodworking (joinery) shops. J Environ Monit 2006, 8, 73–78.
63.
Hines CJ, Waters MA, Larsson L, Petersen MR, Saraf A, Milton DK: Characterization of endotoxin and 3-hydroxy fatty acid levels in air and settled dust from commercial aircraft cabins. Indoor Air 2003, 13, 166–173.
64.
Hryhorczuk D, Curtis L, Scheff P, Chung J, Rizzo M, Lewis C, Keys N, Moomey M: Bioaerosol emissions from a suburban yard waste composting facility. Ann Agric Environ Med 2001, 8, 177–185.
65.
Hyvarinen A, Roponen M, Tiittanen P, Laitinen S, Nevalainen A, Pekkanen J: Dust sampling methods for endotoxin – an essential, but underestimated issue. Indoor Air 2006, 16, 20–27.
66.
Iwanaga S, Morita T, Harada T, Nakamura S, Niwa M, Takada K, Kimura T, Sakakibara S: Chromogenic substrates for horseshoe crab clotting enzyme. Its application for the assay of bacterial endotoxins. Hemostasis 1978, 7, 183–188.
67.
Jagielo PJ, Thorne PS, Watt JL, Frees KL, Quinn TJ, Schwartz DA: Grain dust and endotoxin inhalation challenges produce inflammatory responses in normal subjects. Chest 1996, 110, 263–270.
68.
Janke MD: Innovation in endotoxin detection – moving out of the Stone Age. Int Pharm Ind 2009, 3, 86–89.
69.
Kaszowska M: Chemical structure and biosynthesis of lipopolysaccharide – important component of the cell envelope of Gram-negative bacteria. Adv Hyg Exp Med 2004, 58, 333–342.
70.
Kirikae T, Kirikae F, Saito S, Tominaga K, Tamura H, Uemura Y, Yokochi T, Nakano M: Biological characterization of endotoxins released from antibiotic-treated Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1998, 42, 1015–1021.
71.
Kirschner D, Que Hee SS, Clark CS: Method for detecting the 3-hydroxymyristic acid component of the endotoxins of Gram-negative bacteria in compost samples. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1985, 46, 741–746.
72.
Kirychuk SP: Particulate Distribution and Relationship to Endotoxin in Poultry Production Operations. Ph.D. thesis. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon 2008.
73.
Krajewski JA, Cyprowski M, Szymczak W, Gruchala J: Health complaints from workplace exposure to bioaerosols: a questionnaire study in sewage workers. Ann Agric Environ Med 2004, 11, 199–204.
74.
Kuchuk AA, Basanets A, Louhelainen K: Bronchopulmonary pathology in workers exposed to organic fodder dust. Ann Agric Environ Med 2000, 7, 17–23.
75.
Laitinen S: Exposure to Airborne Bacteria in Occupational Environments. Ph.D. thesis. University of Kuopio, Kuopio 1999.
76.
Laitinen S, Kangas J, Husman K, Susitaival P: Evaluation of exposure to airborne bacterial endotoxins and peptidoglycans in selected work environments. Ann Agric Environ Med 2001, 8, 213–219.
77.
Laitinen S, Linnainmaa M, Laitinen J, Kiviranta H, Reiman M, Liesivuori J: Endotoxins and IgG antibodies as indicators of occupational exposure to the microbial contaminants of metal-working fluids. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1999, 72, 443–450.
78.
Lane SR, Sewell RDE: Endotoxins and glucans: environmental troublemakers. Biologist 2006, 53, 129–134.
79.
Larsson L, Szponar B, Ridha B, Pehrson C, Dutkiewicz J, Krysińska-Traczyk E, Sitkowska J: Identification of bacterial and fungal components in tobacco and tobacco smoke. Tobacco Induced Dis 2008, 4, 4.
80.
Lee JA, Johnson JC, Reynolds SJ, Thorne PS, O’Shaughnessy PT: Indoor and outdoor air quality assessment of four wastewater treatment plants. J Occup Environ Hyg 2006, 3, 36–43.
81.
Levin J, Bang FB: Clottable protein in Limulus: its localization and kinetics of its coagulation by endotoxin. Thromb Diath Haemorrh 1968, 19, 186–197.
82.
Levin J, Bang FB: The role of endotoxin in the extracellular coagulation of Limulus blood. Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 1964, 115, 265–274.
83.
Liebers V, Brüning T, Raulf-Heimsoth M: Occupational endotoxin-exposure and possible health effects on humans. Am J Ind Med 2006, 49, 474–491.
84.
Liebers V, Raulf-Heimsoth M, Brüning T: Health effects due to endotoxin inhalation (review). Arch Toxicol 2008, 82, 203–210.
85.
Liu AH: Endotoxin exposure in allergy and asthma: Reconciling a paradox. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003, 112, 219–220.
86.
Liu AH, Leung YM: Modulating the early allergic response with endotoxin. Clin Exp Allergy 2000, 30, 1535–1539.
87.
Lodowska J, Wolny D, Węglarz L, Dzierżewicz Z: The structural diversity of lipid A from gram-negative bacteria. Adv Hyg Exp Med 2007, 61, 106–121.
88.
Lonza: Limulus Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) PYROGENT®-5000. Cat. No. N383, N384, N588, N688. Lonza, Walkersville 2007.
89.
Lonza: PyroGene Recombinant Factor C Endotoxin Detection System. Cat. No. 50-658U, 50-658NV. Lonza, Walkersville 2007.
90.
Loverock B, Simon B, Burgenson A, Baines A: A recombinant Factor C procedure for the detection of Gram-negative bacterial endotoxin. Pharmacopeial Forum 2009, 35, 1613–1621.
91.
Lundin JI, Checkoway H: Endotoxin and cancer. Environ Health Perspect 2009, 117, 1344–1350.
92.
Lyngby J, Olsen LH, Eidem T, Lundanes E, Jantzen E: Quantification of lipopolysaccharides in outer membrane vesicle vaccines against meningococcal disease. High-performance liquid chromatographic determination of the constituent 3-hydroxy-lauric acid. Biologicals 2002, 30, 7–13.
94.
Madsen AM, Hansen VM, Nielsen SH, Olsen TT: Exposure to dust and endotoxin of employees in cucumber and tomato nurseries. Ann Occup Hyg 2009, 53, 129–138.
95.
Madsen AM, Martensson L, Schneider T, Larsson L: Microbial dustiness and particle release of different biofuels. Ann Occup Hyg 2004, 48, 327–338.
96.
Madsen AM: Exposure to airborne microbial components in autumn and spring during work at Danish biofuel plants. Ann Occup Hyg 2006, 50, 821–831.
97.
Magalhaes PO, Lopes AM, Mazzola PG, Rangel-Yagui C, Penna TC, Pessoa Jr A: Methods of endotoxin removal from biological preparations: a review. J Pharm Pharm Sci 2007, 10, 388–404.
98.
Maitra SK, Schotz MC, Yoshikawa TT, Guze LB: Determination of lipid A and endotoxin in serum by mass spectroscopy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1978, 75, 3993–3997.
99.
Malmros P, Sigsgaard T, Bach B: Occupational health problems due to garbage sorting. Waste Manage Res 1992, 10, 227–234.
100.
Martensson L, Gradowska W, Larsson L: Use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry versus the Limulus Amebocyte Lysate test for the determination of airborne endotoxin in confined wine buildings. Aerobiologia 1997, 13, 99–107.
101.
Martinez FD: Maturation of immune responses at the beginning of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1999, 103, 355–361.
102.
Martinez FD, Holt PG: Role of microbial burden in aetiology of allergy and asthma. Lancet 1999, 354, SII12–15.
103.
Martinez KF, Rao CY, Burton NC: Exposure assessment and analysis for biological agents. Grana 2004, 43, 193–208.
104.
Mattsby-Baltzer I, Lindgren K, Lindholm B, Edebo L: Endotoxin shedding by enterobacteria: free and cell-bound endotoxin differ in Limulus activity. Infect Immun 1991, 59, 689–695.
105.
Mc Donnell PE, Coggins MA, Hogan VJ, Fleming GT: Exposure assessment of airborne contaminants in the indoor environment of Irish swine farms. Ann Agric Environ Med 2008, 15, 323–326.
106.
Michel O: Role of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in asthma and other pulmonary conditions. J Endotoxin Res 2003, 9, 293–300.
107.
Michel O, Ginanni R, Duchateau J, Vertongen F, Le Bon B, Sergysels R: Domestic endotoxin exposure and clinical severity of asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 1991, 21, 441–448.
108.
Milanowski J: Experimental studies on the effects of organic dust-derived agents on respiratory system: comparison between endotox-ins and glucans. Inhalation Toxicol 1997, 9, 369–388.
109.
Milton DK: Endotoxin and other bacterial cell-wall components. In: Macher J (Ed): Bioaerosols: Assessment and Control, 23-1-23-14. ACGIH, Cincinnati 1999.
110.
Milton DK, Alwis KU, Fisette L, Muilenberg M: Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay specific for (1›6) branched, (1›3)-ß-D-glucan detection in environmental samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 2001, 67, 5420–5424.
111.
Morris NM, Brannan MA: Gas chromatographic determination of the fatty acid composition of endotoxins from different bacteria. J Chromatogr Biomed Appl 1986, 374, 27–35.
112.
Morris NM, Catalano EA: A chemical method for determining endotoxins in cotton dust and lint without extraction. Textile Res J 1990, 60, 421–426.
113.
Morris NM, Catalano EA, Berni RJ: 3-hydroxymyristic acid as a measure of endotoxin in cotton lint and dust. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1988, 49, 81–88.
114.
Nachumi R, Berzofsky RN: Chromogenic Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate assay for rapid detection of gram-negative bacteriuria. J Clin Microbiol 1985, 21, 759–763.
115.
Nakamura S, Morita T, Iwanaga S, Niwa M, Takahashi K: A sensitive substrate for the clotting enzyme in horseshoe crab hemocytes. J Biochem 1977, 81, 1567–1569.
116.
Olenchock SA: Endotoxins. In: Morey PR, Feeley JC, Otten JA (Eds): Biological Contaminants in Indoor Environments, 190–200. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia 1990.
117.
Ooi VE, Liu F: Immunomodulation and anti-cancer activity of polysaccharide-protein complexes. Curr Med Chem 2000, 7, 715–729.
118.
Palchak RB, Cohen R, Ainslie M, Hoerner CL: Airborne endotoxin associated with industrial-scale production of protein products in gram-negative bacteria. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1988, 49, 420–421.
119.
Parker JH, Smith GA, Fredrickson HL, Vestal JR, White DC: Sensitive assay, based on hydroxy fatty acids from lipopolysaccharide lipid A, for Gram-negative bacteria in sediments. Appl Environ Microbiol 1982, 44, 1170–1177.
120.
Pearce N, Douwes J, Beasley R: The rise and rise of asthma: a new paradigm for the new millennium. J Epidemiol Biostat 2000, 5, 5–16.
121.
Phipatanakul W, Celedón JC, Raby BA, Litonjua AA, Milton DK, Sredl D, Weiss ST, Gold DR: Endotoxin exposure and eczema in the first year of life. Pediatrics 2004, 114, 13–18.
122.
Polish Standard PN-EN 13098: Workplace Atmosphere – Guide-lines for Measurement of Airborne Micro-organisms and Endotoxin. Polish Committee for Standardization, Warsaw 2007.
123.
Polish Standard PN-EN 14031: Workplace Atmospheres – Determination of Airborne Endotoxins. Polish Committee for Standardization, Warsaw 2006.
124.
Pomorska D, Larsson L, Skórska C, Sitkowska J, Dutkiewicz J: Levels of bacterial endotoxin in air of animal houses determined with the use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and Limulus test. Ann Agric Environ Med 2007, 14, 291–298.
125.
Pomorska D, Larsson L, Skórska C, Sitkowska J, Dutkiewicz J: Levels of bacterial endotoxin in the samples of settled dust collected in animal houses. Bull Vet Inst Pulawy 2009, 53, 37–41.
126.
Portengen L, Preller L, Tielen M, Doekes G, Heederik D: Endotoxin exposure and atopic sensitization in adult pig farmers. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005, 115, 797–802.
127.
Pretus HA, Ensley HE, McNamee RB, Jones EL, Browder IW, Williams DL: Isolation, physicochemical characterization and preclinical efficacy evaluation of soluble scleroglucan. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1991, 257, 500–510.
128.
Rahkonen R, Ettala M, Laukkanen M, Salkinoja-Salonen M: Airborne microbes and endotoxins in the work environment of two sanitary landfills in Finland. Aerosol Sci Technol 1990, 13, 505–513.
129.
Randon K: The two sides of the endotoxin coin. Occup Environ Med 2006, 63, 73–78.
130.
Rao CY, Riggs MA, Chew GL, Muilenberg ML, Thorne PS, Van Sickle D, Dunn KH, Brown C: Characterization of airborne molds, endotoxins, and glucans in homes in New Orleans after hurricanes Katrina and Rita. Appl Environ Microbiol 2007, 73, 1630–1634.
131.
Reiman M, Uitti J: Exposure to microbes, endotoxins and total dust in cigarette and cigar manufacturing: an evaluation of health hazards. Ann Occup Hyg 2000, 44, 467–473.
132.
Reponen T, Seo SC, Grimsley F, Lee T, Crawford C, Grinshpun SA: Fungal fragments in moldy houses: a field study in homes in New Orleans and Southern Ohio. Atmos Environ 2007, 41, 8140–8149.
133.
Reynolds SJ, Black DW, Borin SS, Breuer G, Burmeister LF, Fuortes LJ, Smith TF, Stein MA, Subramanian P, Thorne PS, Whitten P: Indoor environmental quality in six commercial office buildings in the Midwest United States. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 2001, 16, 1065–1077.
134.
Reynolds SJ, Milton DK, Heederik D, Thorne PS, Donham KJ, Croteau EA, Kelly KM, Douwes J, Lewis D, Whitmer M, Connaughton I, Koch S, Malmberg P, Larsson BM, Deddens J, Saraf A, Larsson L: Interlaboratory evaluation of endotoxin analyses in agricultural dusts: comparison of LAL assay and mass spectrometry. J Environ Monit 2005, 7, 1371–1377.
135.
Rietschel ET, Kirikae T, Scheda FU, Mamat U, Schmidt G, Loppnow H, Ulmer AJ, Zahringer U, Seydel U, Di Padova F: Bacterial endotoxin: molecular relationships of structure to activity and function. FASEB J 1994, 8, 217–225.
136.
Roitt I, Brostoff J, Male D (Eds): Immunology. Słotwiński Verlag Medical Publishers, Bremen-PZWL Medical Publishers, Warsaw 2000.
137.
Ronald LA, Davies HW, Barlett KH, Kennedy SM, Teschke K, Spithoven J, Dennekamp M, Demers PA: ß-(1›3)-Glucan exposure levels among workers in four British Colombia sawmills. Ann Agric Environ Med 2003, 10, 21–29.
138.
Ross GD, Vetvicka V, Yan J, Xia Y, Vetvicková J: Therapeutic intervention with complement and beta-glucan in cancer. Immunophar-macology 1999, 42, 61–74.
139.
Rusiecka-Ziółkowska J, Walszewska M, Stekla J, Szponar B: Role of endotoxin in pathomechanism of sepsis. Pol Merk Lek 2008, 25, 260–265.
140.
Rylander R: Endotoxin and occupational airway disease. Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2006, 6, 62–66.
141.
Rylander R: Indoor air-related effects and airborne (1›3)-ß-D-glucan. Environ Health Perspect 1999, 107, 501–503.
142.
Rylander R: Organic dust induced pulmonary disease – the role of mould derived beta-glucan. Ann Agric Environ Med 2010, 17, 9–13.
143.
Rylander R: Organic dusts – from knowledge to prevention. Scand J Work Environ Health 1994, 20, 116–122.
144.
Rylander R: The role of endotoxin for reactions after exposure to cotton dust. Am J Ind Med 1987, 12, 687–697.
145.
Rylander R, Carvalheiro MF: Airways inflammation among workers in poultry houses. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2006, 79, 487–490.
146.
Rylander R, Holt PG: (1›3)-ß-D-glucan and endotoxin modulate immune response to inhaled allergen. Mediators Inflamm 1998, 72, 105–110.
147.
Rylander R, Norrhall M, Engdahl U, Tunsäter A, Holt PG: Airways inflammation, atopy, and (1›3)-ß-D-glucan exposure in two schools. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998, 158, 1685–1687.
148.
Rylander R, Persson K, Goto H, Yuasa K, Tanaka S: Airborne ß,1-3-glucan may be related to symptoms in sick buildings. Indoor Environ 1992, 1, 263–267.
149.
Rylander R, Thorn J, Attefors R: Airways inflammation among workers in a paper industry. Eur Respir J 1999, 13, 1151–1157.
150.
Samadi S, Wouters IM, Houben R, Jamshidifard AR, Van Eerdenburg F, Heederik DJ: Exposure to inhalable dust, endotoxins, ß(1›3)-glucans, and airborne microorganisms in horse stables. Ann Occup Hyg 2009, 53, 595–603.
151.
Sander I, Fleischer C, Borowitzki G, Brüning T, Raulf-Heimsoth M: Development of a two-site enzyme immunoassay based on mono-clonal antibodies to measure airborne exposure to (1›3)-ß-D-glucan. J Immunol Methods 2008, 337, 55–62.
152.
Saraf A, Larsson L, Burge H, Milton D: Quantification of ergosterol and 3-hydroxy fatty acids in settled house dust by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: comparison with fungal culture and determi-nation of endotoxin by a Limulus amebocyte lysate assay. Appl Environ Microbiol 1997, 63, 2554–2559.
153.
Saraf A, Park JH, Milton DK, Larsson L: Use of quadrupole GC-MS and ion trap GC-MS-MS for determining 3-hydroxy fatty acids in settled house dust: relation to endotoxin activity. J Environ Monit 1999, 1, 163–168.
154.
Schierl R, Heise A, Egger U, Schneider F, Eichelser R, Neser S, Nowak D: Endotoxin concentration in modern animal houses in Southern Bavaria. Ann Agric Environ Med 2007, 14, 129–136.
155.
Schroeder JC, Tolbert PE, Eisen EA, Monson RR, Hallock MF, Smith TJ, Woskie SR, Hammond SK, Milton DK: Mortality studies of machining fluid exposure in the automobile industry. IV: A case-control study of lung cancer. Am J Ind Med 1997, 31, 525–533.
156.
Seo SC, Grinshpun SA, Iossifova Y, Schmechel D, Rao CY, Reponen T: A new field-compatible methodology for the collection and analysis of fungal fragments. Aerosol Sci Technol 2007, 41, 794–803.
157.
Seo SC, Reponen T, Levin L, Borchelt T, Grinshpun SA: Aerosolization of particulate (1›3)-ß-D-glucan from moldy materials. Appl Environ Microbiol 2008, 74, 585–593.
158.
Seo SC, Reponen T, Levin L, Grinshpun SA: Size-fractionated (1›3)-beta-D-glucan concentrations aerosolized from different moldy building materials. Sci Total Environ 2009, 407, 806–814.
159.
Sherwood ER, Williams DL, McNamee RB, Jones EL, Browder IW, Di Luzio NR: In vitro tumoricidal activity of resting and glucan-acti-vated Kupffer cells. J Leukocyte Biol 1987, 42, 69–75.
160.
Simpson AT, Stear M, Groves JA, Piney M, Bradley SD, Stagg S, Crook B: Occupational exposure to metalworking fluid mist and sump fluid contaminants. Ann Occup Hyg 2003, 47, 17–30.
161.
Simpson JCG, Niven RML, Pickering CAC, Oldham LA, Fletcher AM, Francis HC: Comparative personal exposures to organic dusts and endotoxin. Ann Occup Hyg 1999, 43, 107–115.
162.
Skórska C, Sitkowska J, Krysińska-Traczyk E, Cholewa G, Dutkiewicz J: Exposure to airborne microorganisms, dust and endotoxin during processing of peppermint and chamomile herbs on farms. Ann Agric Environ Med 2005, 12, 281–288.
163.
Smit LA, Spaan S, Heederik D: Endotoxin exposure and symptoms in wastewater treatment workers. Am J Ind Med 2005, 48, 30–39.
164.
Sonesson A, Larsson L, Schutza A, Hagmar L, Hallberg T: Comparison of the Limulus Amebocyte Lysate test and gas chromatographymass spectrometry for measuring lipopolysaccharidries (endotoxins) in airborne dust from poultry-processing industries. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990, 56, 1271–1278.
165.
Spaan S, Schinkel J, Wouters IM, Preller L, Tielemans E, Nij ET, Heederik D: Variability in endotoxin exposure levels and consequences for exposure assessment. Ann Occup Hyg 2008, 52, 303–316.
166.
Spaan S, Smit LA, Eduard W, Larsson L, Arts HJ, Wouters IM, Heederik DJ: Endotoxin exposure in sewage treatment workers: investigation of exposure variability and comparison of analytical techniques. Ann Agric Environ Med 2008, 5, 251–261.
167.
Spaan S, Wouters IM, Oosting I, Doekes G, Heederik D: Exposure to inhalable dust and endotoxins in agricultural industries. J Environ Monit 2006, 8, 63–72.
168.
Su HJ, Chen HL, Huang CF, Lin CY, Li FC, Milton DK: Airborne fungi and endotoxin concentrations in different areas within textile plants in Taiwan: a 3-year study. Environ Res 2002, 89, 58–65.
169.
Szponar B, Larsson L. Use of mass spectrometry for characterising microbial communities in bioaerosols. Ann Agric Environ Med 2001, 8, 111–117.
170.
Szymańska J: Exposure to bacterial endotoxin during conservative dental treatment. Ann Agric Environ Med 2005, 12, 137–139.
171.
Tai JY, Liu TY: Studies on Limulus amoebocyte lysate. Isolation of pro-clotting enzyme. J Biol Chem 1977, 252, 2178–2181.
172.
Tan NS, Ho B, Ding JL: High-affinity LPS binding domain(s) in recombinant factor C of a horseshoe crab neutralizes LPS-induced lethality. FASEB J 2000, 14, 859–870.
173.
Thorn J, Beijer L, Jonnsson T, Rylander R: Measurement strategies for the determination of airborne bacterial endotoxin in sewage treatment plants. Ann Occup Hyg 2002, 46, 549–554.
174.
Thorn J, Beijer L, Rylander R: Effects after inhalation of (1›3)-ß-D-glucan in healthy humans. Mediators Inflamm 2001, 10, 173–178.
175.
Thorn J, Rylander R: Airways inflammation and glucan in a rowhouse area. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998, 157, 1798–1803.
176.
Thorne PS, Bartlett KH, Phipps J, Kulhankova K: Evaluation of five extraction protocols for quantification of endotoxin in metalworking fluid aerosol. Ann Occup Hyg 2003, 47, 31–36.
177.
Thorne PS, Kulhánková K, Yin M, Cohn R, Arbes Jr SJ, Zeldin DC: Endotoxin exposure is a risk factor for asthma: the national survey of endotoxin in United States housing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005, 172, 1371–1377.
178.
Tolvanen OK, Nykanen J, Nivukoski U, Himanen M, Veijanen A, Hänninen K: Occupational hygiene in a Finnish drum composting plant. Waste Manage 2005, 25, 427–433.
179.
Van Amersfoort ES, Van Berkel TJC, Kuiper J: Receptors, mediators, and mechanisms involved in bacterial sepsis and septic shock. Clin Microbiol Rev 2003, 16, 379–414.
180.
Verma JN, Rao M, Amselem S, Krzych U, Alving CR, Green SJ, Wassef NM: Adjuvant effects of liposomes containing lipid A: enhancement of liposomal antigen presentation and recruitment of macrophages. Infect Immun 1992, 60, 2438–2444.
181.
von Mutius E, Braun-Fahrländer C, Schierl R, Riedler J, Ehlermann S, Maisch S, Waser M, Nowak D: Exposure to endotoxin or other bacterial components might protect against the development of atopy. Clin Exp Allergy 2000, 30, 1230–1234.
182.
Walters M, Milton D, Larsson L, Ford T: Airborne environmental endotoxin: a cross-validation of sampling and analysis techniques. Appl Environ Microbiol 1994, 60, 996–1005.
183.
Wang Y, McCusker C: Neonatal exposure with LPS and/or allergen prevents experimental allergic airways disease: development of tolerance using environmental antigens. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006, 118, 143–151.
184.
White EM: Environmental endotoxin measurement methods: standardization issues. Appl Occup Environ Hyg 2002, 17, 606-609.
185.
Williams DL: Overview of (1›3)-ß-D-glucan immunobiology. Mediators Inflamm 1997, 6, 247–250.
186.
Williams DL, Sherwood ER, Browder IW, McNamee RB, Jones EL, Rakinic J, Di Luzio NR: Effect of glucan on neutrophil dynamics and immune function in Escherichia coli peritonitis. J Surg Res 1988, 44, 54–61.
187.
Williams LK, Ownby DR, Maliarik MJ, Johnson CC: The role of endotoxin and its receptors in allergic disease. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2005, 94, 323–332.
188.
World Health Organization: Guidelines for Indoor Air Quality: Dampness and Mould. WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen 2009.
189.
Wouters IM, Spaan S, Douwes J, Doekes G, Heederik D: Overview of personal occupational exposure levels to inhalable dust, endotoxin, beta(1›3)-glucan and fungal extracellular polysaccharides in the waste management chain. Ann Occup Hyg 2006, 50, 39–53.
190.
Yoon J, Ponikau JU, Lawrence CB, Kita H: Innate antifungal immunity of human eosinophils mediated by a beta 2 integrin, CD11b. J Immunol 2008, 181, 2907–2915.
191.
Young NS, Levin J, Prendergast RA: An invertebrate coagulation system activated by endotoxin: evidence for enzymatic mediation. J Clin Invest 1972, 51, 1790–1797.
192.
Zelles L, Rackwitz R, Bai QY, Beck T, Beese F: Discrimination of microbial diversity by fatty acid profiles of phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides in differently cultivated soils. Plant Soil 1995, 170, 115–122.
193.
Zhang K, Petty HR: Influence of polysaccharides on neutrophil function: specific antagonists suggest a model for cooperative saccharideassociated inhibition of immune complex-triggered superoxide production. J Cell Biochem 1994, 56, 225–235.
194.
Zock JP, Hollander A, Heederik D, Douwes J: Acute lung function changes and low endotoxin exposures in the potato processing industry. Am J Ind Med 1998, 33, 384–391.
Share
RELATED ARTICLE
| eISSN: | 1898-2263 |
| ISSN: | 1232-1966 |
Improvement of visual identification of the journal - task financed under the agreement No. 618/P-DUN/2019 by the Minister of Science and Higher Education allocated to the activities of disseminating science.
Generation of the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) - task financed under the agreement No. 618/P-DUN/2019 by the Minister of Science and Higher
© 2006-2024 Journal hosting platform by Bentus
We process personal data collected when visiting the website. The function of obtaining information about users and their behavior is carried out by voluntarily entered information in forms and saving cookies in end devices. Data, including cookies, are used to provide services, improve the user experience and to analyze the traffic in accordance with the Privacy policy. Data are also collected and processed by Google Analytics tool (more).
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
You can change cookies settings in your browser. Restricted use of cookies in the browser configuration may affect some functionalities of the website.
